Buddhist Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theory: A Guidance of Buddhist Psychotherapy Based on Mindfulness 

Buddhist Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theory: A Guidance of Buddhist Psychotherapy Based on Mindfulness 

• Article of ALOK MIND (Buddhist Psychology) No. 3.
• Author: Bhikkhu ALOKA
• Published by ALOK MIND Foundation 
• Issued: 17 October, 2023

Abstract

This paper explores the relationship between Buddhism, psychotherapy, and the evolving mental health of the 21st century generation. It analyzes the concept of inner peace as a fundamental aspect of mental health, distinct from physical well-being, and considers various perspectives on achieving this state of tranquility. Analyzing Buddhist psychology, it examines the delicate balance between contrasting psychological drives and how it correlates with inner peace. Moreover, the article highlights the way of mindfulness in various therapeutic approaches, including psychoanalysis, and how it contributes to the resolution of inner conflicts. The article underscores the influence of Buddhist philosophy and practice on contemporary psychotherapy, emphasizing the significance of mindfulness-based therapies. It sheds light on the work of notable psychotherapists, such as Erich Fromm, who drew inspiration from Buddhist principles and integrated them into their therapeutic methods. The discussion encompasses the applicability of mindfulness-based approaches to address a spectrum of issues, from stress management to addictions and emotional regulation.

Furthermore, the article studies the concept of Buddhist psychotherapy and its integration with humanistic theories, exploring the intersections and common ground between these two realms. It emphasizes the experiential aspects of self-awareness, empathy, and compassion in counseling, drawing parallels between the therapist and practitioners’ journey toward inner peace. The exploration extends to the potential for reducing conflict and promoting mental well-being on a broader societal scale, emphasizing the significance of addressing individual and collective conflicts for a harmonious world. Throughout, the article reflects on the practical applications and implications of Buddhist psychology and mindfulness in modern psychotherapy, highlighting their valuable contributions to the evolving field of mental health.

Introduction

In modern psychotherapy or behavioral and social cognitive theory, the integration of mindfulness-based approaches has become increasingly prominent. Among the diverse range of mindfulness-based therapies, Buddhist psychology has emerged as a rich source of principles and practices that find resonance in various psychotherapy theories. This article explores the intersection of Buddhist Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories with contemporary psychotherapy to shed light on their application in fostering mental well-being. The foundation of mindfulness, a central component of Buddhist psychology, can be traced back to the teachings of Lord Buddha, as articulated in the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta. This discourse serves as a cornerstone of Buddhist doctrine, emphasizing the Fourfold Setting up of Mindfulness as the sole path to the purification of beings and the realization of Nirvana. Mindfulness, as defined in this context, represents the innate human capacity to be fully present, cognizant of one’s immediate surroundings, and unburdened by reactive responses to external stimulation.

Within the realm of Buddhist psychology, the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta provides a structured approach to the cultivation of mindfulness. Its four foundations-Mindfulness of Body, Feeling, Consciousness, and Mind-Object-offer a comprehensive framework for individuals to develop self-awareness and traverse the path to genuine knowledge and liberation. These foundations encourage the practice of mindfulness in various postures and activities, fostering a profound understanding of the human experience. This article delves into the fusion of these Buddhist principles with contemporary psychological theories. It recognizes the universal susceptibility to mental afflictions and the enduring quest for mental well-being, incorporating ethical nuances embedded within Buddhist psychology. Moreover, it explores the profound influence of Buddhist psychology for the 21st century generation, marked by the emergence of mindfulness-based therapies, making mindfulness an integral element in psychological counseling and therapy.

Mindfulness-based approaches, such as Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT) and Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), have gained prominence for their efficacy in addressing a range of psychological issues, including depression and substance abuse. In contrast to traditional cognitive therapies, MBCT focuses on transforming one’s relationship with thoughts rather than altering the thoughts themselves, promoting present-focused awareness. This article also introduces Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), a psychotherapeutic approach that combines acceptance, mindfulness, and behavior change strategies to enhance psychological flexibility. ACT, stemming from Buddhist traditions, encourages individuals to confront distressing emotions, avoid overreaction, and align their actions with personal values and meaning.

Furthermore, it emphasizes the role of mindfulness in the fusion of Buddhist psychotherapy with humanistic theories, exemplifying how mindfulness can enrich existential understanding and personal transformation. Psychotherapists like Erich Fromm, contemporary figures like Jon Kabat-Zinn, and Buddhist instructors such as Jack Kornfield have found in Buddhist practices a wellspring of insights and therapeutic value, accentuating the convergence between Buddhist and Western psychological principles. The article’s exploration extends to the practical application of mindfulness-based therapies, showcasing their relevance in addressing a spectrum of issues, including stress management, grief counseling, addictions, and emotional regulation. It underscores the transformative journey of self-awareness, compassion, and empathy, both for therapists and their clients, as they navigate the complexities of human existence.

In the final section, this article concludes by illuminating the roles of teachers and counselors in The Nature of Counseling according to Buddhist principles. It provides a glimpse into the application of therapeutic orientations, particularly mindfulness-based EFT, in addressing diverse psychological issues. Furthermore, it touches upon Buddhist perspectives regarding positive emotions, particularly the emotion of generosity. As the 21st century unfolds, the integration of Buddhist Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories with contemporary psychotherapy represents a fascinating confluence of ancient wisdom and modern practices. This article invites readers to embark on a journey through the depths of mindfulness, illuminating its transformative potential in the realm of mental health and well-being.

Adaptable Mind and Inner Peace

When contemplating what constitutes good mental health, it aligns closely with inner peace. Initially, I believed that it encompassed not only the tranquility of the mind (heart) but also the harmony and well-being of the physical body, signifying a balance between nama and rupa. However, I soon realized this perspective was flawed. Even individuals dealing with illness or physical disabilities have the right to experience inner peace, and some indeed do. Therefore, I came to the conclusion that good mental health, or inner peace, primarily pertains to the state of the mind or heart.

From a psychoanalytic perspective founded by Sigmund Freud, considering that individuals inhabit the kamma world, mental health revolves around maintaining equilibrium between Libido (the sex drive, representing the energy directed towards “becoming”) and Todestrieb (the death drive, manifesting as a drive towards death and destruction, often manifested through behaviors like aggression, repetition compulsion, and self-destructiveness). Failure to balance Libido may lead to issues like sexual misconduct, while an excessive Todestrieb can drive individuals towards self-harm or harm to others, similar to finding a balance between lobha (attachment) and dosa (hatred). In this view, achieving an extraordinarily high level of inner peace or superlative mental health involves reducing lobha and dosa, ultimately leading to becoming an arahant and breaking the cycle of rebirth.

Psychoanalysis encompasses a collection of theories and therapeutic techniques designed to explore the unconscious mind, offering a method for addressing mental disorders. This discipline was established in the early 1890s by Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud, who used the term psychoanalysis to describe his own school of thought.

Freud’s work drew inspiration from the clinical contributions of Josef Breuer and others. Over time, psychoanalysis evolved in various directions, notably through Freud’s students, such as Alfred Adler and his collaborator Carl Gustav Jung, and neo-Freudian thinkers like Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, and Harry Stack Sullivan.

Psychodynamic psychotherapists were among the early adopters of mindfulness in therapy, drawing parallels between Freud’s psychoanalysis and mindfulness practices. Mark Epstein highlights the similarities between Freud’s attentional guidance and those found in Buddhist teachings, even though there is no direct evidence of Freud’s direct influence by Buddhism. Unfortunately, Mark Epstein’s psychodynamic psychotherapy remains relatively obscure in 21st-century new generation Chinese practice, with limited translations of his works.

Within the neo-Freudian tradition, Erich Fromm stands out as a therapist deeply influenced by Buddhism. In his works, such as “Zen and Psychotherapy” and posthumously published “The Art of Listening,” he acknowledges the significance of mindfulness as a therapeutic tool. Fromm also engaged in important correspondence with Ven. Nyanaponika, a German Buddhist monk residing in Sri Lanka. In terms of theory, Epstein asserts that Buddhism provides insights into resolving ‘identity confusion,’ and in the realm of therapy, he develops a mindfulness-based psychodynamic approach. Epstein’s book “Thoughts Without a Thinker: Psychotherapy from a Buddhist Perspective” remains a seminal contribution to the intersection of Buddhism and Western therapeutic approaches in recent times.[1]

Conflict is a universal human emotion that involves feelings of animosity and resentment. It can spread within society like an insidious disease, akin to a contagious ailment. Left unchecked, it can wreak havoc on a community. As John A. McConnell articulates in his book, Mindful Mediation: A Handbook for Buddhist Peacemakers “effective conflict resolution requires an analysis of the views, perceptions, attachments, and emotions of all parties involved. Cravings often lead us down divergent paths, causing us to deny our true selves. Conflict exacerbates these contradictions by forcing us to defend our illusions as if they were reality.”[2] Thus, reducing conflict and promoting good mental health are of paramount importance, not just for individual well-being but also for the broader world, particularly in the context of the 21st-century new generation.

Buddhist Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories

Mindfulness-based approaches to psychotherapy and counseling find their application in various psychotherapy theories. The majority of Buddhist psychotherapies and counseling are integrated into the behavioral and social cognitive theories.

The foundation of mindfulness has its origins in the teachings of Lord Buddha, specifically the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta, delivered during his stay at the market town known as Kammāsadhamma in the Kuru country. This discourse ranks among the most fundamental teachings on doctrine, commencing and concluding with the following passage: “The one and only path, Bhikkhus, leading to the purification of beings, to passing far beyond sorrow and lamentation, to the dying-out of pain and grief, to the attainment of the right method, to the realization of Nirvana, is that of the Fourfold Setting up of Mindfulness.”[3]

Mindfulness represents the fundamental human capacity to be entirely present, aware of our current surroundings and actions, and not excessively reactive or overwhelmed by external stimuli.

The Pāli texts of the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta and the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta largely coincide, with the primary difference being an expanded section on the Four Noble Truths (Catu Ariya Sacca) in the Observation of Phenomena (Dhammānupassana) within the Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta. These discourses emphasize the practice of sati, which is mindfulness.

A valuable insight can also be drawn from “The Art of Breathing: Buddhist Principles and Methods” by Sanu Mahatthanadull, which highlights that irrespective of the length or pace of respiration, it is essential to utilize “mindfulness”[4] as a natural regulator of human airflow.

In the Satipaṭṭhāna Sutta, “Sati” denotes mindfulness or focused attention, “Pa” signifies attentive focus, and “ṭhāna” represents foundation. Thus, Satipaṭṭhāna collectively translates to the foundation of mindfulness. The four foundations of mindfulness are categorized into four main divisions:

1. Mindfulness of Body (Kāyānupassanā Satipaṭṭhāna)
2. Mindfulness of Feeling (Vedanānupassanā Satipaṭṭhāna)

III. Mindfulness of Consciousness (Cittānupassanā Satipaṭṭhāna)

1. Mindfulness of Mind-Object (Dhammānupassanā Satipaṭṭhāna)

Understanding unwholesome dhammas is crucial for human beings. The instructions for awakening factors indicate that if mindfulness (sati) is present in an individual, they recognize it as the mindfulness awakening factor. Conversely, if mindfulness is absent, they are aware of its absence. Practicing and cultivating joy or loving-kindness can diminish anger, contributing to greater happiness.

By contemplating the body within the body, practicing mindfulness of breathing, and maintaining mindfulness in all postures (sitting, walking, standing, lying down), as well as being aware of all activities, individuals can eventually focus on the repulsive and elemental aspects. When the four foundations of mindfulness are developed and nurtured, they lead to the fulfillment of the seven enlightenment factors. In turn, the cultivation of these seven factors leads to genuine knowledge and liberation.

In the domain of modern psychology, the central focus revolves around cognition, motivation, emotion, personality, the mind-body relationship, thought processes, and emotions, as well as the concepts of mental health and well-being.

Prominent theories in psychological counseling and therapy include Freud’s psychoanalysis/psychodynamic theory, behavior therapy, cognitive therapy, person-centered therapy, existential therapy, and more recently, emotion-focused therapy (EFT).

From the perspective of Buddhist psychology, every individual is susceptible to “mental affliction,” with the exception of arahants who have eradicated the āsavas (influxes). It is acknowledged that two types of afflictions exist: mental and physical, and even if one can address physical ailments, mental afflictions persist until one attains perfection.

Buddhist psychology is deeply rooted in the broader framework of Buddhist ethics and philosophy, and its psychological terminology is imbued with ethical nuances. Within Buddhist psychology, two therapeutic objectives exist: the pursuit of a harmonious and virtuous life for individuals within the 21st-century new generation (“samacariya,” meaning “harmonious living”), and the ultimate aspiration of attaining nirvana, which signifies the complete cessation of dissatisfaction and suffering (dukkha).

The book “An Introduction to Buddhist Psychology” has captivated a dedicated readership for more than three decades. In recent times, the past two decades have witnessed the introduction of courses on Buddhist psychology in Western universities. These courses are typically offered within the departments of religion and philosophy. Furthermore, a second wave of interest has led to the development of Buddhist courses focusing on psychology and novel programs related to counseling and therapy. In nations such as Thailand and Sri Lanka, these courses have gained significant prominence and play a crucial role in the realm of Buddhist studies. Recent years have seen a surge in general interest in Buddhist psychology, primarily attributed to the emergence of numerous mindfulness-based therapies. An abundance of articles now integrates elements of mindfulness into psychological counseling and therapy.

Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) represents an approach to psychotherapy that combines cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) techniques with mindfulness meditation practices and related psychological strategies. The Mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) program, for instance, offers a more comprehensive approach that incorporates mindfulness practices.

In contrast to the earlier cognitive therapy pioneered by Beck and Ellis, MBCT endeavors to transform an individual’s relationship with their cognitions rather than attempting to change the cognitions themselves. Furthermore, MBCT emphasizes a present-focused awareness of the client’s mental processes without excessive interpretation and projection, in contrast to the disputation model.

In addition to reducing depressive symptoms, research indicates the effectiveness of mindfulness meditation in curbing cravings among individuals dealing with substance abuse issues. The application of MBCT and MBSR has proven highly effective in hospitals and schools in major Chinese cities such as Beijing and Shanghai. This effectiveness is likely to extend to smaller towns in the future.

Another approach, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), represents a form of psychotherapy and a branch of clinical behavior analysis. ACT is an evidence-based psychological intervention that combines acceptance and mindfulness strategies with commitment and behavior change strategies to enhance psychological flexibility.

Originally known as comprehensive distancing, ACT was developed by Steven C. Hayes in 1982 to create a blended approach that integrates covert conditioning and behavior therapy. Various protocols for ACT exist, tailored to specific target behaviors or settings. For instance, a condensed version known as focused acceptance and commitment therapy (FACT) is utilized in behavioral health contexts.

ACT’s primary objective is not to eliminate distressing emotions but to encourage individuals to confront such feelings, avoid overreacting to them, and not evade situations that trigger them. The therapeutic effect of ACT fosters a positive cycle wherein feeling better leads to a better understanding of the truth. In ACT, “truth” is gauged in terms of workability or what actions align with one’s values and sense of meaning.

The incorporation of mindfulness into clinical psychology largely stems from a dialogue with Buddhist traditions, with ACT being a notable exception. In China, the Institute of Psychology at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, led by Hongzhuo ZHU, has played a pivotal role in promoting and teaching ACT.

As Dr. Sanu Mahatthanadull notes, “The state of consciousness stands behind and regulates all the actions at a behavioral level of individuals, framed by either moral, ethical, or both. This is because the mental factor exerts control over and guides human behavior through words and actions. Thus, when the human mind experiences degradation, it inevitably manifests in the form of degraded behavior.”[5]

Buddhist Psychotherapy and Modern Integration of Humanistic Theories

Buddhist psychotherapy and the 21st-century new generation have numerous intersections and points of convergence. This encompasses a descriptive phenomenology of mental states, emotions, and behaviors, as well as theories of perception and latent mental factors. Psychotherapists like Erich Fromm have discovered in Buddhist enlightenment experiences the potential for personal transformation, recovery, and the discovery of existential significance. Some contemporary mental health professionals, such as Jon Kabat-Zinn, find therapeutic value in ancient Buddhist practices, while Buddhist instructors like Jack Kornfield view Western psychology as offering complementary approaches for Buddhists.

It symbolizes an authentic, existential, and experiential thread in my life, which underwent a profoundly unsettling phase in 1994 (see Chapters 16 and 17 on ‘Sadness’ and ‘Grief’) but culminated in profound insights into self-awareness – encompassing anger, fear, anxiety, loneliness, and mild despondency, with an emerging serenity, equanimity, profound empathy, compassion, and insights, along with the ability to grasp the conflicts and stresses of my clients in counseling.

The Buddha recommended his son Rahula to contemplate his mind in the manner one gazes into a mirror, as a pathway for self-awareness. In my counseling sessions, the client’s mind served as a mirror, allowing me to discern my own “emotional rhythms” in their mind and body.

As Ervin Yalom notes, the client and the therapist are fellow travelers, starting to comprehend the challenging encounters in life: navigating through shattering conflicts, anger, and anxiety, but progressively experiencing tranquility, satisfaction, and insight into one’s circumstances.

When we contribute to the development of mindfulness-based EFT, I will conclude by elucidating the role of both teacher and counselor in The Nature of Counseling according to Buddhist principles. The section that ensues this background analysis will demonstrate the application of therapeutic orientations, particularly mindfulness-based EFT, to particular issues, featuring case studies concerning a spectrum of problems to which we apply therapy theory and methods, such as stress management, grief counseling, addictions, and the management of certain selected emotions. It will also include a concluding chapter on Buddhist perspectives regarding the positive emotion of generosity.

The Buddha, speaking to an elderly man in the last phases of life, advises him: “Wherefore householder, thus you should train yourself; Though my body is sick, my mind shall not be sick.”

Padmasiri de Silva’s book, Introduction to Buddhist Psychology and Counseling: Pathways of Mindfulness-Based Therapies Part II, introduced the nature of counseling, the evolution of mindfulness-based therapies in the West, and specific counseling issues such as grief counseling, stress management, anger management, depression, addictions, self-esteem, self-identity, and the positive emotions of compassion and generosity. The negative emotions, including depression, anger, fear, anxiety, vanity, and arrogance, take a central place based on my own development of mindfulness-based EFT, often referred to as the “rhythms of our emotional lives.”

Family psychotherapy and counseling are highly effective in the realm of Buddhist psychotherapy, primarily due to the influence of traditional culture in the 21st-century new generation. This is also evident in Thai society, as described by Sanu Mahatthanadull and Sarita Mahatthanadull, where a person’s character can exhibit both virtuous and unfavorable habits. Buddhist psychology outlines positive behavior for family relationships, emphasizing the wisdom required for self-improvement in alignment with Buddhist morality and ethics, including two essential practices: 1) Cultivating positive qualities in a spouse and 2) Promoting equality of virtue between spouses.[6]

Conclusion

In this century, for our life journey, mental health, mindfulness, and the confluence of Buddhist psychology with contemporary psychotherapeutic theories, it becomes evident that the pursuit of inner peace is a central theme. As we conclude our exploration of “Adaptable of Mind and Inner Peace,” several key insights emerge. First and foremost, inner peace is a fundamental element of good mental health. It extends beyond mere tranquility, transcending the constraints of physical well-being. Every individual, regardless of physical condition, is entitled to experience inner peace. Our understanding evolves to acknowledge that good mental health primarily resides in the state of the mind, the heart, and the inner being.

From a psychoanalytic perspective, rooted in the works of Sigmund Freud, the dynamics of mental health are portrayed as a delicate equilibrium between the energies of Libido and Todestrieb. This balance mirrors the harmony sought between lobha (attachment) and dosa (aversion) in Buddhist psychology. The quest for superlative mental health entails the reduction of attachment (lobha) and aversion (dosa), eventually leading to the liberation from the cycle of rebirth. Our journey encompasses the rich tapestry of psychoanalysis, from its inception by Freud to the evolution into various psychotherapeutic approaches. In this context, psychoanalysis and Buddhism intersect in their emphasis on mindfulness as a transformative instrument. Figures like Erich Fromm, deeply influenced by Buddhism, and modern psychotherapists like Mark Epstein, exemplify this fusion, providing valuable insights for the quest of inner peace.

Conflict, a universal human experience, carries profound implications for individual and societal well-being. The words of John A. McConnell remind us that effective conflict resolution necessitates a deep analysis of views, perceptions, attachments, and emotions, often rooted in cravings and illusions. Hence, reducing conflict becomes a paramount objective, critical not only for individual mental health but for the broader world, especially within the 21st-century generation. Mindfulness, a central tenet of Buddhist psychology, seamlessly integrates with contemporary psychotherapy. Approaches like Mindfulness-Based Cognitive Therapy (MBCT), Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR), and Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) find efficacy in addressing a spectrum of psychological issues, from depression to substance abuse. These mindfulness-based therapies offer a present-focused approach to mental well-being. In conclusion, the integration of Buddhist Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories with contemporary psychotherapy showcases a fascinating synergy between ancient wisdom and modern practices. These theory is really effective for transformative potential of mindfulness in the realm of mental health and inner peace. In the 21st-century new generation, the intersection of Buddhist principles with psychological theories offers a promising path towards mental well-being and harmony. The quest for inner peace is an ever-evolving narrative, a continuous journey through the intricacies of the human mind, and a testament to the enduring spirit of self-discovery and healing.

[1] Padmasiri de Silva, Introduction to Buddhist Psychology and Counsell ing: Pathways of Mindfulness Based Therapies, Palgrave Macmillan UK. 2014. P1 33.

[2] John A. McConnell, Mindful Mediation: A Handbook for Buddhist Peacemakers, Bangkok: Buddhist Research Institute, Mahaculalongkornrajavidyalaya Buddhist University, 1995.

[3] Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta, D.II. 290.

[4] Sanu Mahatthanadull, “The Art of Breathing: Buddhist Principle and Methods”, Commemorative Book, The 2nd MCU International Academic Conference, May 19, 2016, (Bkk: JPrint Mahadhat, 2016): p.151.

[5] Sanu Mahatthanadull, “Buddhist Response to Environmental Degradation under Conceptual Framework of the Five Niyāma”, Proceedings Document, The 1st MCU International Academic Conference (MIAC) on Buddhism and World Crisis, Graduate School, May 29, 2015, (BKK: MCU Printing): P.70.

[6] Sanu Mahatthanadull and Sarita Mahatthanadull, “Human Behaviors in Promoting Balance of Family according to Buddhist Psychology”, A Research Report Funded by National Research Council of Thailand (NRCT) Fiscal Year 2019, (Buddhist Research Institute: Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalaya University, 2019), p.106.